Ethical Theories

Sample Answer

Foundational Concepts of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is an ethical framework that judges the morality of an action based on its outcome or consequences. The core concepts are:

Utility: This is the central concept. Utility refers to the net happiness, well-being, or pleasure an action produces. A utilitarian aims to maximize this utility.

The Greatest Happiness Principle: Also known as the principle of utility, this is the guiding rule of the theory. An action is considered right if it increases happiness and wrong if it decreases it. It is about promoting the most good for the most people affected by the decision.

Types of Utilitarianism

Literature on Utilitarianism expands on these core ideas by differentiating between two main forms:

Act Utilitarianism: This form focuses on the consequences of a specific act. An act utilitarian will assess each individual action to see if it produces the greatest happiness. For example, lying to protect a friend's feelings would be justified if it creates more overall happiness than telling the painful truth.

Rule Utilitarianism: This form focuses on the consequences of adopting a general rule of behavior. A rule utilitarian asks, "What rule, if followed by everyone, would produce the greatest good?" For example, the rule "do not lie" is a good one because, in general, it fosters trust and stability, which contributes to greater overall happiness, even if a single instance of lying might seem beneficial.

Additional Concepts in Utilitarianism

Beyond the core principles and their types, other concepts are crucial to understanding the theory:

Consequentialism: This is the broader ethical category to which Utilitarianism belongs. Consequentialist theories argue that the moral worth of an action is determined by its consequences.

Hedonism: The earliest forms of Utilitarianism, like those of Jeremy Bentham, were based on hedonism, the idea that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. He proposed a "hedonic calculus" to measure pleasure and pain based on factors like intensity, duration, and certainty.

Higher vs. Lower Pleasures: John Stuart Mill, a later utilitarian, refined the theory by introducing a distinction between higher and lower pleasures. He argued that intellectual, moral, and aesthetic pleasures (higher) are superior to purely physical ones (lower). This concept addresses the criticism that Utilitarianism could reduce all human endeavors to base pursuits. Mill famously stated, "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."

Preference Utilitarianism: This modern variation, associated with philosophers like Peter Singer, defines utility not as pleasure, but as the satisfaction of preferences or desires. The goal is to maximize the satisfaction of the preferences of all affected individuals.